1998 Issue |
“The
fiction of France’s ‘domestic jurisdiction’ in Indochina 10,000 miles away
brought the United States to the verge of war in April, 1954. The extreme
version of this concept shelters both colonialism and communist
totalitarianism, and promotes their interaction to undermine orderly, peaceful
progress.”
Six former colonial areas – Jordan, Ceylon, Nepal, Libya,
Cambodia and Laos – joined the UN in 1955. Lloyd said it was a time “when
national freedom again was recognized as a logical, acceptable goal for all
peoples.” The call issued in Bandung had helped power the drive for UN
membership. He also acknowledged that the US maintained an air base in Libya
and that the removal of Algeria from the UN agenda represented a setback. However, for the first time a UN
visiting mission had proposed a timetable for independence in Tanganyika
(Tanzania) – although it was just “within 25 years.”
Other countries were edging toward freedom. Ghana was preparing
for full independence, Sudan’s parliament had declared it independent, Malaysia
was preparing to vote, and Morocco was making slow progress. But thousands of lives
were being lost in Algeria, nationalists were defying the British military
occupation of Cyprus, and violence persisted in Kenya.
In the midst of the 1956 elections Lloyd addressed the connection
between politics and morality. European powers had “milked the colonial people
for all they could get,” he charged in an editorial with the pointed title, “Wrongs
Must Be Righted.” Too many people forgot “the simple moral fact that the
wrongdoer must make restitution before his good intentions can be given full
confidence.” That meant restitution for descendants of “grievously wronged”
Native Americans and the African people:
“…
a full balancing would require colonial governments to spend more for the education
of each African child than for each European child, and more for African than
for European agricultural development, rather than the lesser amounts that
actually are spent in both cases.”
If Europe’s governments claim that can’t afford it, Lloyd added,
the US should handle a big part of the cost by shifting some money from military
spending to a “huge and dramatic educational and development program through
the United Nations.”
The Conference on Independent African States
When Ghana became a sovereign nation on March 6, 1957, Homer Jack
represented the TF executive board at the independence celebrations and filed a
report in the April issue. The British union jack had been replaced with
Ghana’s flag of red, green and gold, he wrote, but economic colonialism
lingered.
Jack met with Prime Minister Nkrumah and saw promise in some of
his bold ideas. For instance, he liked Nkrumah’s idea for a conference of independent African
states – including the Union of South Africa – “to “achieve an African
personality in international affairs.” A
year later he covered that event, as well as the Sixth Pan-African Conference,
both held in Accra.
Although a few participants at the Conference of
Independent African States, notably Tunisia and Ethiopia, were cautiously
pro-Western the majority leaned toward
neutralism, Jack reported. But there were various types – the positive
neutralism of the United Arab Republic, Ghana’s positive non-alignment, and
Morocco’s non-dependence. The final resolutions talked about “non-entanglement with
the big power blocs."
Asserting that the African states had a distinctive personality which
would speak to the cause of peace, the conference called on the great powers to
stop producing nuclear weapons and suspend all testing. In particular, they condemned
France’s provocative intentions to test nukes in the Sahara. They urged more African
representation in disarmament talks and more consultation generally on global
affairs.
There was no anti-Israel rhetoric, by the way, only a call for a
“just solution of the Palestinian question.” Part of the reason was that Ghana,
which hosted the event, was becoming one of Israel’s closest friends on
the continent. The other friend was the Union of South Africa.
Regional Federalism and Atomic Colonialism
Bill Lloyd frequently focused on the challenges of independence
and the tension between centralization vs. federal states rights. In an April
1955 commentary he said that, taken to an extreme, self-determination could lead
to fragmentation. On the other hand, new countries had a perfect right to
suspect the colonial powers of trying to use divide and conquer tactics.
The ideal was sovereignty of the people. But based on his Swiss
research Lloyd argued pragmatically for the potential of “regional federalism
under democratic guarantees.” This involved authority for the central
government in the areas of defense, foreign relations, and trade but also
suggested flexibility; for example, states and regions should be able to
negotiate trade agreements with foreign governments subject to federal
approval.
William B. LLoyd, Jr. |
The continued testing of hydrogen bombs by the US, USSR and UK led
to another idea – expanding the definition of colonialism. It needed to go
beyond denial of basic rights of self-determination, he said, “to include the
forceful imposition of radioactive fallout upon the citizens of unwilling and
protesting nations.”
Foreign planes were prevented from violating the
recognized air sovereignty of nations. Invasion by radioactive fallout was an
even greater violation, he charged. It was atomic colonialism, the ultimate
form of environmental racism.
In a follow up editorial Board member Robert Pickus discussed the
“engineering of consent," particularly by the Atomic Energy Commission. “We
cannot trust our government to give us adequate information because we have
given it a prior command: Secure us, by preparing for war,” Pickus wrote.
He
identified a profound conundrum; Americans wanted democracy, which meant access
to information, but they also wanted to be prepared to wage atomic war – which
meant secrecy and ultimately loss of control over the government.
On the Road Toward Freedom: A Cold War Story, part three of six.
Next: Continent in Transition
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